Describe the concept of Moral Relativism Essay

â€Å"You have no right to tell me what to do† and â€Å"What is true for you is not true for me† are great examples of how we do not always accept the real truth in life and these statements are both examples of relativism. There are four kinds of relativism: metaphysical, epistemological, religious and moral which I am going to talk about. Every choice we make is due to each person’s individual morality. Morality is concerned with the free choice of rational human beings, therefore Protagoras shows that there are no moral absolutes when he said â€Å"Man is the measure of all things† in addition moral relativism is the belief that morality does not relate to any absolute standards of right and wrong but good and bad are dependent on culture and circumstance meaning that moral relativism is deontological because it all depends on something being right and wrong. Having a morality may mean that different groups of people may play different versions of football, just like different countries have different legal systems, in addition having a certain moral could just be chosen by the mood that you are in at that certain time of day because moralities accepted at one time may fail to be accepted at another time. What is it for a group or an individual to have a particular morality? In some ways it is like having a particular language with a particular syntax (The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language) and also how we use certain vocabulary. Your morality explains something about the way you act and about the way you react to the actions of others. In my opinion moral relativism is very contradictive and a good example of this would be law enforcement within America because we and they say â€Å"murder is wrong† and their solution is to murder the murderer via execution. We say â€Å"theft is wrong† and then take taxes from people without consent. If someone doesn’t pay taxes and even resists then they will be judged as being morally wrong even though they are doing moral wrongness themselves. Moving on, normative ethics is the main concept of moral relativism because it is the examination of issues of right and wrong and how people justify the decision they make when faced with situations of moral choice an example of this would be the ten commandments because they are a set of rules to stop us from being miss lead in life. In addition a great example of this would be when morality is determined by situations, for example, lying is wrong. But lying to the Nazis where the Jews are is right. Since situations are relative and changing, then morality is relative and changing, however morality is not always determined by situations but conditioned by it for example murder is wrong, but one must murder someone for self-defence. So therefore this situation makes a deed right, Killing for self-defence makes killing not murder. Therefore killing for self-defence is not wrong. Another point people think is true is that good intentions is enough. It is not. Hitler had good intentions, but his actions were not. A good intention can make a deed good, but a good intention does not make a bad deed good.

How Would You Define the Word “Democracy” Give Full Reasons for Your Answer?

This essay will argue that there is no single definition of democracy, due to the fact that there are many models of democracy, which in turn have their own opinions on what the term means. For example direct democracy can be seen as government by the people. In contrast representative democracy can be seen as government for the people. Also depending if one agrees with political equality will alter your definition for example if a person has high level of social significance they would believe that democracy is the rule of the elite and political equality does not exist this is the view point of Marxists.However on the other hand liberal- democracies do believe it and therefore their opinion on â€Å"democracy† is political equality. As Bernard Crick 1993 stated, â€Å" democracy is the most promiscuous word in public affairs† (Andrew Heywood politics third edition chapter four page 73) meaning the word democracy can mean anything. The word democracy comes from the Gre ek word demo meaning people and kratos meaning power.So the classical term for democracy is rule by the people. However this term is very vague, who is the people in ancient Greece in order to participate in politics you had to be male over the age of twenty, excluding women slaves and foreigners. In contemporary times there is restricted political participation usually the ages from 21 to 15, to vote. This in turn shows that not everyone is able to participate in controlling his or her own government due to age.The fact that voting is based on majority shows that voting only represents the majority. So people who voted against the majority will not get their say â€Å"the tyranny of the majority† (Andrew Heywood politics third edition chapter four page 73) explains that the term people is not everyone living in the state but the majority. Therefore depending on how old you are and who you voted for will depend if you believe the word democracy is rule by the people.The most significant point of democracy is liberal democrat view of political equality â€Å"one person one vote one value† this is very true most western democratic regimes are based on voting everyone get a vote and it is equal however in contrast Marxists believe that actually this is not true. The more level of significance of social equality such as control of mass communication and economic resources as well as voting is more likely to have your point of view taken into account by the government.An example is in the 2000 presidential election between George W Bush and Al Gore, Florida was the sate that could tip the balance between who would win, many news stations counted that Al gore won. The fact that George W Bush brother Jeb Bush was senator of Florida and that his other brother was in charge of publishing the votes on Fox News meant. The fact that votes was casted on fox news earlier than most stations meant many voters changed their minds and voted Bush as he was supposed ly most likely to win.The fact is George W Bush had the backing from the mass media such as Fox media and people in power such as Jeb meant he came in to power. (George W Bush had mass media control, the average voter voice was not heard, and as Al gore was whom the majority voted for) (Film Fahrenheit 9-11 Michael Moore) This is an example of pluralist democracy in which the elite are in control of society, the capacity of organised groups to articulate government responsiveness.In countries that has capitalism as its backbone economy, the elite tend to be the ones who own or control big corporate business, you only need to look at â€Å"America political system and see that people funding political candidates are buying influence and accesses to lobby groups† (www. news. bbc. co. uk/world/america), that is why in 2000 191 million dollars was raised by oil companies and united defence for Bush. Of course through the course of history we know that theses business benefited a lot from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.This shows that corporatist pluralism is a threat to society as a threat to society because political equality does not take place, if you are considered an insider group you will benefit such as united defence and if you are an outsider the chances of you influencing government other than voting is almost nil. As Lenin said liberal democracies are seen as bourgeois democracies that are†¦ by the ruling class (Andrew Heywood politics third edition page 86). However the view that only the elite benefit from â€Å"democracy† and that political equality does not exist which is the major point of democracy in that it should exist, is not always true.Peak associations benefit the state rather than major economic associations and the elite; theses are groups that want the best interest for the workers. So you could argue that in some cases political equality does exist. An example is Obama and his democratic party in which they believe in supporting the people not the business, the creation of Medi-care is an example. The creation of the Gettysburg Address delivered in 1864 by Abraham Lincoln â€Å"government of the people by the people for the people â€Å" (www. showcase. et/ creative Lincoln speech) made defining democracy a lot more difficult, due to the fact two models of democracy have cropped up direct democracy (by the people) through systems of referendum and representative democracy (for the people) system of electing someone on your behalf. Direct democracy may be seen by citizens of countries such as Switzerland as the real form of democracy due to the fact the people are in- charge of ruling them selves all the government do is facilitate the decision and make sure it is carried through.This is most similar to the ancient Greek idea of democracy. The way it is done is through referendums’ that can only be passed if majority of cantons agree as well as a small minority of cantons. An example o f referendums in Switzerland in which the people have voted for and taken action is the Swiss people have rejected the law that state funded layers can protect animals in 2010. (www. bbc. co. uk). However the main problem with referendums’ is governments can reject them going against the principal of rule by the people.An example occurred in the state of Rhode Island in 2002, when the governor placed such a referendum on the ballot asking citizens if they wanted to change the state constitution to make the three branches of the state government co-equal. The citizens voted in favor of the measure, but the result was not binding, and the governor and the legislature were not required to take action. (www. elearnportal. com/courses/political-science).The other point is direct democracy would only work in areas with small population such as Greek city states and Switzerland otherwise a population like the UK with over 60 million people would mean any decision would take a huge a mount of time. Therefore the representative democracy exits, the argument for representative democracy is people may not have the education or background to make logical decisions for the rest of the population; therefore you vote for your constituency who on your behalf represented you.Who in turn in parliamentary democracies would vote who would head your party. This may seem democratic in the view that your MP is only interested in your constituency. However party politics play a part and some politicians may seem greedy for power and not really care or represent you. Also even though this creates accountability on MPs behalf you may only do something about it every time an election is held. We only have an input every four years (undergrounddemocracy. com).This is means if politicians go against their mandate or do something the majority of people don’t like example the student cuts you cant do something about it until the next election. Also depending on who you are in t he political system will depend on what you think is a democratic system, for example totalitarian regimes such as Hitler and the Nazi party may claim they where democratic due to the fact they represented the peoples best interest, however the German people who where not involved in politics or people in general who live under a dictatorship may not agree that they are living democratically.In conclusion the language of democracy is used as political propaganda â€Å" it is a political weapon it is shaped and honed to covey political intent† (Andrew Heywood political theory page 2) what Andrew meant is similar to what Bernard Crick in that there is no clear definition of democracy. It all depends on who is the person or group that is defining the word democracy.If you are living in a representative democracy under a totalitarian regime and you are the head of that party in power then of course you would say you are democratic working in the best interest of the people despit e the fact they could be living in the gutter starving. Or if you are the prime-minster of the Britain despite the fact you where not directly elected by the people to be prime-minster but you are non-the less creating a government for the people you would say you are democratic, in contrast to people who did not vote for you or your policy.If you are considered a Marxist then your opinion on liberal democracy is that it is false due to the fact political equality does not exist and that the elite and corporatists have more power to influence the government for them and not always the majority of people, however if you are the elite you would say it is democratic as we live in competitive capitalist environment and through peek associations we benefit the economy because we have the know how, and the majority would want that.Direct democracy is another definition of democracy stating that the citizens should have complete control however due to political restrictions such as age and the ability to reject referendums proves that rule by the people can t be fully accomplished.My opinion is that again depending on who is defining democracy will depend on what they want it to mean due to the popularity of being democratic however, complete democracy will never be achieved as there will always be people who appose an opinion causing rule by the majority. But the ability to vote enables that citizens do have some control over their society and that in most western democracies people in power are trying to do what is best for the interest of the people, even if political equality may not exist.

9/11 the After Effect on Canada

Sunner CHC2D1-06 Mr. Pasquantonio June, 4th, 2012 9/11: The After-effect on Canada The events of September 11, 2001 (9/11) are remembered throughout the world. On this unforgettable day, three aircrafts crashed at different locations throughout the United States. Two of which crashed into the famous World Trade Center taking thousands of innocent lives. These attacks had allowed countries to learn and prepare to avoid any similar future events. Moreover, the effects of 9/11 had indirectly influenced Canada, beneficially and detrimentally.Canada as a nation had learned from this tragic experience as well as mourned the losses of its neighboring nation. The terrorist attacks had dramatically affected Canada; socially, economically, politically. To begin with, Canada’s social atmosphere had been indirectly affected by 9/11. The aftermath of 9/11 mirrored similar social effects of the United States, within Canada. Canadians developed a sense of paranoia for unexpected terrorist at tacks, which may possibly occur at any given period.Many Americans believed that the terrorists had slipped through Canadian borders; in consequence, attacking Canada may be easy for terrorists. The events of 9/11 had influenced many of the majority class Canadians to assimilate a patriotic and vengeful mind state. Post 9/11 minority Canadians were witnessing a dramatic increase of discrimination and racial profiling. Several majority class citizens and patriotic citizens were acting chaotic by performing hate crimes for their own self-interest of protecting themselves.Similarly, several minority individuals consisting of brown skin tone were perceived to be terrorists and prone to alienation, â€Å"Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, and Sikh Canadians all once again found themselves on the receiving end of unjust treatment meted out by their neighbors. Due to the reaction of the community; Sikh and Hindu temples were razed and targeted as a terrorist threat. Overall, the social atmosphere wit hin Canada had been detrimentally affected by the event of 9/11.Secondly, Canada’s economy had been ultimately influenced by the attacks of 9/11. Canada’s economy like many others is partially dependent on the United States. In consequence, Canada mirrors the United States economic progress. . The aftermath of 9/11 had mainly been negative for Canada’s economy. In 2009, Canada had imported 51. 1% to its biggest trading partner, the United States however, the increased border security applied by the United States resulted in a 2. 4% decline in Canada’s exports to the United States.Several businesses had laid-off workers. Over 462 form layoffs were executed and an estimated of 130,000 workers were displaced. Canada had expended $1. 2 billion in order to enhance border security. After 9/11 Canada’s security expenses had dramatically increased to an estimated total of $10. 7 billion. Increased security after 9/11 had continuously led to harmful effects towards the economy. However, improved security within Canada had led people to believe that the country was a much safer place than before.Similarly In result to 9/11, Canada’s economy had shifted negatively. Finally, Canada had undergone numerous political changes as a result of 9/11. Canada had applied new policies and regulations to ensure and safeguard the protection of society and to avoid any future acts of terrorism. As a result, Canada introduced the ‘Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act’. Such an act was necessary in-order to calm down society and create a sense of safe-haven. The act was created only after the 9/11 attacks, and the main goal was to prevent history from repeating itself.Also, Canada had created a new act to further increase security and prevention of terrorism, â€Å"Public Safety Act, which features executive regulations designed to secure sites and substances exposed to terrorism. The main purpose of the act was, to prevent terrorist attacks and protect Canadians, However, many Canadian citizens where shocked by the event and wanted to reach out and give their full support in helping the United States. To sum up, Canada’s political state had endured an extensive amount of changes. In conclusion, Canada had been affected circuitously by 9/11.Post 9/11, Canada had appeared out as a different nation; it had changed socially, economically, environmentally. Socially, Canada had reacted towards the tragedy with an increase of discrimination, racial profiling and hate crimes. Moreover, Canada’s economy had suffered negatively because of our dependence on the United States. Corporations and businesses had experienced lower profits for the months following the attacks as a result of increased security. Canada had also shifted politically with the creation and innovation of new and old laws and regulations for the greater good of society.Such an terrible event that had taken place on 9/11 will never be forgotten; i t will be imprinted into history and used as an example to avoid any similar events. Works Cited Adelman, Howard. â€Å"Canadian Borders and Immigration Post 9/11. † International Migration Review. Volume 36, Number 1 (Spring 2002), 15 Athanassakos, Alex, Meis, Scott and Nieuwenhuis, Sid, â€Å"THE IMPACTS OF THE US TERRORIST ATTACK ON CANADA'S ACCOMMODATION INDUSTRY. † Ontla. On. Ca. http://www. ontla. on. ca/library/repository/mon/3000/10301210. df, accessed 17th November 2010. Gloverman, Steven and Storer, Paul. The Impacts of 9/11 on Canada-U. S. Trade. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008, 19 & 159 Kent, Roach. â€Å"Canada’s Response to September 11. † Kent, Roach, Michael, Hor and Victor, Ramraj. Global Anti-Terrorism Law and Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, 535 Kruger, Erin, Mulder, Marlene and Korenic ,Bojan. â€Å"Canada after 11 September: Security Measures and ‘Preferred' Immigrants. † Mediterranean Q uarterly. Volume 15, Number 4 (Fall 2004), 84-85 n/a. Canada's Actopms Against Terrorism Since September 11. † Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. http://www. international. gc. ca/anti-terrorism/canadaactions-en. asp, accessed 20th November 2010. n/a. â€Å"Of man, being the first part of Leviathan,† Thomas Hobbes. 1909-14, http://www. bartleby. com/br/03405. html, accessed 21 November 2010. William C, Banks. â€Å"United States Responses To September 11. † Kent, Roach, Michael, Hor and Victor, Ramraj. Global Anti-Terrorism Law and Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, 520 ;amp; 525

Theories Regarding the Nature of Organizational Culture Research Paper - 1

Theories Regarding the Nature of Organizational Culture - Research Paper Example Schein (2010) tries to understand the dimensions of organizational culture and how the organizational culture can direct innovation while the scholar also tried to highlight the role of leaders in shaping the organizational culture. These gaps in the literature have influenced the researcher to conduct research on the topic and write this research paper.   Schein (2010) found it difficult to derive a definition of culture due to conceptual and semantic confusions while the scholar also argued that it is not possible to define different social groups under the roof of the universally accepted definition of culture. In such context, Alvesson and Sveningsson (2008) suggested that the focus should be on defining culture within the organization rather than understanding the culture of social groups sharing similar kind of traditions, rituals, history, and customs. Brooks (2009) also tried to define the organizational culture in terms of norms, the behavior of members and knowledge sharing, yet, such definition is far from capturing full dimensions of culture. To clear out confusions regarding the definition and characteristics of organizational culture, the research paper will use Schein’s (2010) idea for organizational culture. According to Schein (2010), organizational culture has dimensions like behavioral regularities, group dyna mics, espoused values, ideological  principles, unwritten rules of the organization, communication between members, special competencies displayed by group members, shared cognitive frames between members, the way team members celebrate within organization, emotional and aesthetic response etc.  Now, the fact is that it is very difficult to integrate all the mentioned elements within same organizational context but there is no doubt that these factors play the vital role in shaping the organizational culture. Schein (2010) also identified three levels of culture such as Artifacts, Espoused Beliefs & Value, and Underlying Assumptions.

Compare and contrast two examples of surveillance culture in the Essay

Compare and contrast two examples of surveillance culture in the digital age, drawing on Foucault's notion of disciplinary socie - Essay Example R.D. Laing was a pioneer of various treatments for the then known paranoid schizophrenics. He can be said to be an important tie between Gilles Dileuze and Michel Foucault. He is a concrete reference in 1,000 Plateau's, and is a notable figure 'personal' to both Foucault and Deleuze's respective past's. The following is an essay and analysis on the subject of paranoia as it is a part of a nexus of the "continuous forms of control" [Deleuze, 1992, , 4] . The focus of this analysis, is toward both understanding the causes of this unfortunate condition, and further, the following will examine also how schizophrenia effects those who are families or friends with individuals. Careful consideration in this discussion will be paid to understanding also, the varieties of schizophrenia , and in turn, what can be said to be the degree of severity for this disorder. This paper will begin with a discussion of the debate in the literature on this subject, and proceed to present a discussion of ho w schizophrenia effects the families who surround individuals who suffer from this disorder. Aside from the nexus of relationships involved, focus will also be paid to the issue of current technologies. It can be said that any use of the internet, and second, any use of a basic cell-phone both raise concerns about privacy and security. In both instances, one has to assume that they do not have control over what is being used by supposedly private data. It is a closed 'system' in the Foucault sense. One cannot control the data on either the internet or the telephone, so that one has to begin with the assumption that the subject or consumer does not have control. Likewise, this is an important parallel to skizophrenia. One either has it or they do not. Schizophrenia is a disease which can be effectively controlled. There are a number of medications which allow these individuals some relief from the suffering which is associated with schizophrenia . For the disease itself, the sufferin g of the individual can be seen in terms of having to cope with hallucinations. By this, it is implied in terms of seeing things which are not really there, or hearing voices, and so on [Westen, 1996, p. 593]. One can only imagine how disorienting a state of mind this must be. And, there are different types of schizophrenia in terms of the degrees with which an individual’s reality can become distorted. For example, there is a condition known as paranoia schizophrenia . This is a state of mental reasoning which is directed toward believing in the behaviour of other individuals, and sometimes objects (e.g. radios, trees). That is, it is a state of mind where the individual who is suffering from this disorder, will attribute an ‘order’ or a ‘pattern’ where such an order or pattern simply does not exist [Westen, 1996, p. 593]. The systems stand in an "analogical" relationship with each other. They are are all systems that exhibit "continuous forms of co ntrol". What is controlled, and how it is being controlled varies among "hospital system", "prison system" and the "school system". "On the other hand, the different control mechanisms are inseparable variations, forming a system of variable geometry the language of which is numerical (which doesn't necessarily mean binary)." The current control is the

An application of Electromagnetics Theory (see directions) Research Paper - 1

An application of Electromagnetics Theory (see directions) - Research Paper Example In the overview of the EMF applications, the main aim of this paper is to analyze the manner in which the electromagnetic theory has been applied and some of the benefits and disadvantages of its use. The analysis will also focus on its application for instance in the case of the low 3d frequency electromagnetic modeling of the human eye with elemental boundaries that are applicable to the (CK) conductive keratoplasty (Lindebaum 298). The surgical technique (CK) Conductive keratoplas is an example of an application that utilizes the electromagnetic theory. It entails a process where the cornea is penetrated by the use of a thin electrode that sends radio-frequency pulse energy to the environs surrounding the tissues in the eye. The heat energy from the electromagnetic is then dispelled into the tissues, which not only tighten thermally but also shrink the lamellae collagen. This process allows the doctors to cure common eye diseases like astigmatism and far-sightedness and correct the cornea’s shape (Itin 3361). A much more technical description of the CK process would include; it being understood from the perspective that biological tissue all have different permatives and conductives and due to this aspect the exposure of biological tissues to low intensity systems and high voltages should be preferably don in such electrical fields. Therefore, low frequency electromagnetic field calculations require boundary element method (BEM) and macroscopic Maxwell equations in their applications, which will later be used to solve the electric problem in the eye (Wolpe 388). Combination of discontinuous and continuous collocations nodes can be used where there are possible potentials that will have to be attached and assigned to the nodes continuously and the discontinuous nodes can be attached and assigned to the electric fields. Through this, there

International Financial Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 5

International Financial Markets - Essay Example Furthermore some countries have ended up losing their investment status of grade. This incident has placed the international investors in alert. Even before the downgrading of the first country into a grade of non-investment, the stock market was down, and some countries even become close to lose their access to capital market. As a result of this the European politicians directed their blame to the crediting rating agency of making thee debt crisis worse. Since 2011, the agency of rating has to regularly register with the European Security and Markets Authority (ESMA) which is also mandated with the further preparation of the legal action (Moloney, 2011). This regulation shows that the rating of credits have some control on the capital market. Some of the money market issue that was affected by the crisis that is to be discussed in this paper includes the macro-financial risk, intra-euro area financial flow, and collateral availability. In most of the countries in euro the deposits owned by the domestic banks were stable between 2010 and 2011. However the domestic banks in Ireland and Greece heavily fell. Ireland and Greece were not in a position to replace the deposits that were lost with other market borrowing or wholesale and the gap that existed by borrowing from their central banks (Whittaker, 2011). The relocation of the market money into the central bank balance sheet caused an inter-central bank debt that was very high within the system of the euro. Inter-commercial bank lending is a means of transferring money from area which have surplus to areas deficit areas (Friedman & Schwartz, 1970). For example if funds is withdrawn from the Greece bank and placed in the bank of Germany, this withdrawal will leave the Greece bank with deficit of money while the Germany bank will be in surplus of money. In the market condition that is normal, the

NUCOR Case Study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

NUCOR Case Study - Research Paper Example Most importantly, the company should consider going global in order to exploit emerging opportunities with globalization. 1.4 Recommendations: The most commendable action is for the company to go global. This will diversify its operations by establishing business across the world markets. It is also a better hub within which its technological aspects can be fully put to use, thereby enhancing its competitiveness against rival firms and cheap imports. 1.5 Implementation: Plan implementation by Nucor has to identify market and industry gaps, and then take advantage of the situation. This may require the company to reevaluate its strategic and long term planning, and assess both financial and non-financial implications of the operational decisions made. This is more so in relation to acquisition of firms, self-development, product and brand development. The U.S steel industry has become significantly competitive as the number of operating firms increase. Foreign firms continue to dump low-cost steel in the U.S markets, thereby affecting the operations of domestic firms, and most importantly those of Nucor. Nucor has had to compete against low-cost steel imports in the U.S, as China, Russia, Brazil, and India continue to dump their steel in the U.S markets. The analysis of the U.S steel industry and the subsequent position held by Nucor in that industry are based on Porter’s five forces model. Nucor’s integration of this model into its operations can be summarized by the figure below: Competition in the U.S steel industry is intense and characterized by both domestic and foreign firms (Thompson 214). Foreign firms compete with the domestic firms on the basis of supplying steel imports to the United States. Nucor engages Mittal Steel and U.S Steel in stiff competition since all the three firms are set up in the United States. In other words, the two companies are the key

Fruit and Vegetables in Australian Market Essay

Fruit and Vegetables in Australian Market - Essay Example Agriculture does not play a dominant role in the economy of the country and its share of Gross Domestic Product is only three percent. "Gross farm product (GFP), which is a measure of the value added in production contributed by businesses classified to the Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (ANZSIC) Subdivision 01 (Agriculture). In 1999-2000 GFP was calculated to be $17.6 billion, or just under 3% of gross domestic product." (7113.0- Agriculture, Australia, 1999-2000 2006). Still the country produces a wide variety of crops including fruits and vegetables. Even though Australia is self sufficient in agriculture, the country also imports fruits vegetables and other agricultural commodities mainly due to rising process of domestic produce and increased demand. "The report says that the rising population and demand, low productivity growth and increasing Australian horticultural prices relative to world prices, will place considerable pressure on imports." (A ustralia: Imports Threaten Fruits and Veges 2008). It would be pertinent to find out how the producers from different parts of this vast country are able to market their produce to the local population. The backbone of the fruit and vegetable market in the country is handled by what is known as the Australian Central Markets. There are six central markets in the country and it is responsible for handling a majority of the fresh produce in the country. "The majority of Australia's fresh produce is either traded or transhipped through Australia's central markets." (About the Market). The concept was a recent one that started operations in 2001 with the purpose of streamlining the wholesale market of fruits, vegetables and flowers in the country. According the above mentioned website, the Central Market Association of Australia is the coordinating agency of the six central markets who are members of this nodal agency. The six member association spread representing nearly all of the fru it and vegetable market in the country are The Adelaide Produce Markets Limited, Brisbane Markets Limited, Melbourne Market Authority, Newcastle Market Pty Ltd., Perth Market Authority and Sydney Markets Ltd. The market is not open for business by individuals for domestic use. This study will focus only on the Melbourne Market Authority since it is representative of the whole country. This market comprises of nearly 600 producer and wholesaler outlets and 140 wholesale trading units. The website says that "Over 1800 individual fruit and vegetable buyers representing independent greengrocers, supermarkets, restaurants and food processors source their produce direct from the Market. Many more receive deliveries and consignments from the Markets." Hence this figure also represents the retail market of the country. A wide variety of fruits and vegetables are available for purchase and resale. About 86 varieties of fruits and nearly eighty five varieties of vegetables are available here which is ultimately made available to the individual consumers. It includes apples to bananas, beetroot, breadfruit, Changko Manis, Chive (Onion Chives), Currant (Red Currant), Fig, Gooseberry, Hogg Plum, lemon, Loganberry, Mango, Olive, Pea Shelling, Potato, Strawberry, Turnip, Winged Bean etc. (Market Fresh News 2008). This list is just to show the wide variety of common and exotic fruits and vegeta

Generation Y and leadership Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Generation Y and leadership - Assignment Example The challenges are also due to the fact that the earlier generation, the ‘x’ers are also in the office floor making it a management conundrum. The challenge of managing this mutigenerational workforce would be considered quaint when one considers the natural progression this situation leads to be an era where millennials will be called to lead other millennials. Aliases for this generation are not in short supply. They could also be referred to as the â€Å"entitlement kids† for the strong sense of expectation they posses. â€Å"†¦If there is one overriding perception of the millennial generation, it's that these young people have great -- and sometimes outlandish – expectations† (Aslop, 2008). What would leadership look when â€Å"entitlement kids† lead â€Å"entitlement kids†? Would it be a positive development or similar to the new tribal warfare we see in the world, outside the corporate curtain wall? One of the best ways to un derstand the millennials is to contrast them with the prior generation ‘x’. Those born in the 1960’s and 1970’s up to 1982 are referred to as the generation ‘x’. They are refereed to as a generation that â€Å"†¦ has always signified a group of young people, seemingly without identity, who face an uncertain, ill-defined (and perhaps hostile) future.†(Ulrich, 2003). ... Sociologists will point to this as a definitive belief in leadership principles by believing in being led. The underlying reasons for this according to Hershatter derived from groundbreaking research done in ‘The History of America's Future 1584 to 2069’ (Strauss et al. 1992) is that â€Å"A lot of the things that people perceived as problematic outcomes as the result of how Gen ‘X’ers were raised – latch key kids, lots of autonomy, lots of freedom, not a lot of attention to their care and well being – was completely reversed with the Millennials†. They were raised with positive reinforcement. Confident in them selves it was insufficient for them to know what had to be done? Brought up with Pokemon, Star Wars and The Lord of The Rings film trilogy they needed to know why it had to be done? Cell phones, Mp3’s, and game portals were their toys making them addicted to technology. Fostered by social media and keypad savvy they have ma naged to be more connected with their parents than generations before them as they were in control of that connectivity. Trust has been inbred them. Gaining knowledge is less of a priority than knowing the sources of knowledge. They have had to learn to trust sources of knowledge. Millennials have turned the perception that generation-to-generation youth culture self degrades. They are changing corporate culture by their liking for immediate feedback, the hunger for positive reinforcement, and the sensitivity to relationships. The above-mentioned factors will cause corporate structures to be flatter to facilitate the required speed of communication and generation ‘Y’ has the

Latin America ( Physical system ) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Latin America ( Physical system ) - Essay Example 269). Recently, the president of Ecuador (Correa) has been in defense of the oil extractions plans in the Amazon (Laht.com, 2014). According to the president, the plans to carry out the oil extraction will have minimal impact to the people and the environment. The government of Ecuador plans to extract oil from Yasuni National Park located in the amazon forest. This forest contains a high level of biodiversity and acts as an ecosystem to thousands of organisms. Altering the ecosystem in favor of the economy will lead to deforestation and climate change. Cutting down of the trees in order to obtain oil will mean reduced carbon absorption. Moreover, this region offers habitat to a different organism, and it is a source of water for human beings. Once the operations begin, the mentioned advantages will be affected negatively. The extraction of oil has several effects on the country. On the positive side, it is going to improve the country’s economy by increasing GDP and providing employment. On the negative side, this event will destroy the habitat and will contribute a lot to global warming due to the emission of industrial waste into the environment. This move by the president sparked several concerns of displeasure. Environmental organizations were concerned on how this move to destroy acres of land in search for oil. However, this move by the president will have numerous political effects in the country. For instance, there have been rising concerns about the president’s leadership, whether he is fit to rule the country (Smith, 2014). People wonder if he has their interest at heart. The president managed to garner political support through the parliament to facilitate his pursuit. The bill was passed in support of the new project. Non-governmental institutions are infuriated by this act. As a result, they embarked on a campaign to oppose the bill. The country is set to experience a political divide. On one hand, some advocate for oil

The Cash Connection Essay Example for Free

The Cash Connection Essay The payday lending industry is a very competitive industry established in the 1990’s, designed to give citizens the option to receive a quick fix regarding financial issues, in an effort to make ends meet. The main objective for those in the payday loan industry â€Å"should be to serve customers in compliance with the rules of the industry and better educate them on the services and products they offer† (Personal Communications, 2012). This industry raises the controversial topic of ethical, or unethical, and to this day is still being disputed. Cash Connection’s strategy is â€Å"to provide financial products and services to the unbanked and financially underserved customers†(CashConnection. eu), also to set themselves apart their competition with the intention of becoming the most dominant franchise in the lending industry. The lending industry was established to provide citizens in a financial crisis with quick cash loans while adhering to the rules of the industry, and informing them of the importance of wise borrowing. A focused differentiation strategy is defined as â€Å"concentrating on a narrow buyer segment and outcompeting rivals with a product offering that meets the specific tastes and requirements of niche members better than the product offerings of rivals†. Cash Connection is taking this approach by offering attractive features to its customers that its competitors cannot offer. The different characteristics consumers find valuable when searching for a quick cash loan, such as lower interest rates, and larger loans have an impact on the consumer’s purchase decision. Cash Connection uses that to their advantage by focusing their strategy around those features in an effort to become the leading lending franchise in that industry. In the excerpt given by Paul Smith there is evidence that suggests that Cash Connection’s strategy and business model is ethical. â€Å"Individuals taking high interest loans were less likely to be in poverty, less likely to be hungry and less likely to have lost their job† (Personal Communications, 2012). Given this act, high interest loans have had a positive impact on society as a whole. Cash Connection explains the importance of wise borrowing before the customer receives the loan, in hopes of preventing the customer from getting into serious financial trouble, as a fair warning before the transaction is complete. â€Å"For companies that operate within this industry, a main objective should be to serve customers in compliance with the rules of the industry and better educate them on the services and products they offer† (Personal Communications, 2012). Certain liabilities are associated with almost every offered product, for example tobacco companies include a warning regarding the health risks associated with the product, and also, alcohol incorporates the same concept into its products. The evidence that suggests Cash Connection’s strategy and business model lies in the â€Å"Pay Loans Scrutinized† video, regarding a woman who carelessly used the system, and built up dependence for the instant cash received (CBS, 2008). In this video a lady reveals her financial struggles she has acquired through the use of high interest lending loans. She explains how lending loans are to blame for the debt she acquired, and states she would prefer to go without heat, water, and food than be in the financial position she is currently in. She obviously abused the privilege and got herself into a predicament. The only unethical argument that rises is the high interest rates that apply under the terms and conditions, making it difficult for those living in poverty to pay back borrowed money. The dominant economic characteristics that affect the payday lending industry consist of the different rules and regulations imposed by the government. The biggest threat the payday lending industry faces is the possibility of it becoming illegal. â€Å"A state that has permissive usury laws can always change its laws to lower ceilings on payday loan finance charges, or to make payday lending illegal†(Caskey, 2002). Also Caskey states some payday franchises require customers to be enrolled in a job position that provides income, along with a checking account. This can have a major impact on the payday lending industry by ruling out those customers that do not fit the necessary requirements established in order to receive a lending loan. â€Å"The five competitive forces include (1) competition from rival sellers, (2) competition from potential new entrants to the industry, (3) competition from producers of substitute products, (4) supplier bargaining power, and (5) customer bargaining power† (Rollins, 2011). Rivalry among the lending industry is very intense and competitive. Since the 1990’s when this industry was established, competition has been fierce because of â€Å"The exiting of traditional financial institutions from the small-denomination, short-term credit market; a change largely due to its high cost structure,† and â€Å"The soaring cost of bounced checks and overdraft protection fees, late bill payment penalties, and other informal extensions of short-term credit† (Personal Communications, 2012). Competition from new entrants in the industry can impose a serious threat because barriers to entry are so low. The only ingredient necessary to enter this market is access to upfront cash. Competition from producers of substitute products contains the ability to be a serious threat because of the different types of loans that banks offer, along with the different characteristics regarding those loans, such as financing programs. Supplier bargaining power holds moderate strength which lies in the hands of the banks. Banks choose which payday franchise to do business with based on that company’s performance. Without the assistance of banks â€Å"the supplier† there is no opportunity for success, so the supplier bargaining power holds serious strength in determining the success of Cash Connection. Lastly, Customer bargaining power does not hold great power. The rates for each payday business are basically the same, and negotiating is not an option for consumers in this industry. The five forces model reveals that the payday lending industry is not ideal for those wanting to manage a successful business. It is very easy for competitors to enter the market, it is in danger of becoming illegal, competition is fierce, and the market already contains too many. The driving forces that currently affect the payday lending industry differ from tate to state. In South Carolina for example, the maximum loan amount is $550, the loan cannot exceed 31 days, and A licensee shall not charge, directly or indirectly, a fee for other consideration in excess of 15% of the face amount of the check† (Morton, 2012). Also several different acts were implemented by the Federal Government to address the different issues associated with payday lending that have an effect, forcing businesses like Cash Connection to create a strategy and approach that comply with these regulations.

Effects of Co-sleeping

Effects of Co-sleeping Con: Co-Sleeping; Angelica Sewake The research paper will examine the effects of co-sleeping. The definition of co-sleeping is, The standard custom in collectivist cultures, of having a child and parent share a bed (Belsky, 2010, 87). A collectivist culture pertains to, Societies that prize social harmony, obedience, and close family connectedness over independent achievement (87). In the United States the issue of practicing co-sleeping has become controversial (Field, 2007, 49). Opponents suggest potential increased risks of suffocation and sudden infant death syndrome which is often caused by co-sleeping (49).On the controversial topic of co-sleeping there are many negative factors to consider. These factors include, the physical safety of the infant and the future psychological affect the child will endure or respond in the long term. In May 1999, the Consumer Product Safety Commission released a warning against co-sleeping or putting babies to sleep on adult beds that were based on a study of death reports under the age of two who had died from 1980 to 1997 (Breazeale, 2001, 2). After the CPSC acknowledged these statistics and shared their findings with the public, it causedparents to be disturbed, rather than serve as a warning (3). The media also became involved in the spread of this alarming statistic and refrained from telling the public2, 700 infants that died from this study died from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (2). Co-sleeping with an infant is hazardous to an infants life while both care giver and child are asleep. Co-sleeping can cause Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) which, Refers to unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant, often while sleeping (Belsky, 2010, 88). Researchers shared statistics of the ratio of infant fatality in the United States; which is 1 to every 1,000 babies (88). The ratio given is large, however, Sudden Death Infant Syndrome is a top-ranking cause of infant mortality in the United States (88). This statistic also shows the ratio of collectivist famalies who participate in this practice of co-sleeping with their infants. Studies also have shown the risk of co-sleeping with an infant increases the chances of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome when an infant is at the age of 12 to 18 months old (Alms, 2007, 1385). Also to consider involving the infants safety when co-sleeping is to take pre cautions and awareness of the higher possibility of the child being suffoca ted or injured physically accidentally by his or her caregiver (1385). Another effect of co-sleeping is having an infant nurtured into becoming a reactive co-sleeper (Field, 2007, 50). In contrast, over the long term, co-sleeping infants may have more trouble sleeping (50). Studies cited by Field prove that Reactive co-sleepers had more frequent night-wakings (50). These findings lead to nurturing the infant into a child having a change in the development of personality and character traits (50).The first trait of change in an infant will have a need for an object as security (Hayes Etal, 1996, 355). The security object may function as a night time human tactile contact (355). According to Field co-sleeping is a collectivist, putting emphasis on family closeness and dependance; but co-sleeping causes the opposite as an infant grows into child hood, puberty, and eventually into adulthood (50).However, early co-sleeping children were more self-reliant and exhibited more social independence (50). Therefore, if a collectivist cultural family reinforces co-s leeping, they also reinforce the independence of a child. In conclusion researches and studies prove there are many pre cautions and dangers to consider when a caregiver and parent decided to practice the method of co-sleeping with their infant. As a recap to the many negative possibilities to remember and consider is: co-sleeping is the underlying cause of Sudden Death Infant Syndrome, co-sleeping may lead to suffocation or an increase risk of caregiver physically injuring the infant, and the psychological effects that may cause the character or personality of the infant as he or she develops to be unacceptable. Works Cited Alms, Bernt. To co-sleep or not to sleep?. Acta Paediatrica 96.10 (2007): 1385-1386. Belsky, Janet. Experiencing the Life Span. Second Ed. Worth Publishers, 2010. 87-88. Breazeale, Tami. Attachment Parenting: A Practical Apporach for the Reduction of Attachment Disorders Promotion of Emotionally Secure Children. Bethel College, 2001. 2-3. Field, Tiffany. The Amazing Infant. Blackwell Publishing Co., 49-50. Hayes, Marie J., Shawn M. Roberts, and Rebecca Stowe. Early Childhood Co-Sleeping: Parent-Child and Parent-Infant Nighttime Interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal 17.4 (1996): 348-357

Celebrity Endorsements

Celebrity Endorsements In the Beauty sector industry, LOreal ranks on the top amongst the other brands, and has also undertaken many celebrity endorsements (Wang W.S, 2006). To comprehend the influence of celebrity endorsement on LOreal Paris a methodical study is required. This chapter has been divided into two sections, the first begins with a brief description about celebrity endorsements, in addition the previous and the current scenario of celebrity endorsements, whereas the second section talks about the brand LOreal, its performance in the industry, the celebrity endorsements it has undergone, furthermore any risks it has faced while endorsing and lastly how has it been influenced by celebrity endorsements   A key challenge that marketing agencies face today to get noticed in the highly competitive market is that of designing an advertising execution. There are many ways through which agencies can secure consumers, amongst them one form is celebrity endorsement (Robert van Der Veen analysis of celebrity endorsement as an effective destination marketing tool, 2004).The concept of celebrity endorsement has been increasing over the decades and now is a widespread advertising strategy. Celebrity endorsement since ages has been used as an effective source of marketing to promote products and services. (Nathan Klaus, and Ainsworth Anthony Bailey, Celebrity endorsement: an examination of gender and consumer attitudes, American Journal of Business, 2008 vol.23 no.2). At present, one will find almost every advertisement involving a celebrity, these celebrities act as spokespersons so as to advertise and promote products, services and ideas. (Cited in Kambitsis et. al 2002, Rajakaski JJ, Simonsson R.2006). Now Celebrity endorsement is a well established form of advertising strategy, especially in the U.S where approximately twenty percent of all the television commercials present a celebrity or a famous person and in addition, approx ten percent of dollars spent on television advertising are consumed in celebrity endorsement. (Cited in advertising age Sherman 1985, Agrawal Kamakura, 1995). The celebrities when are endorsed for a product they are expected to accomplish a number of objectives such as increasing the brand image, brand name, product creditability, and also the likability of the advertisement.(Brunett et all 1993 cited in Marin 1996). Firms use celebrity endorsement not just for increasing revenues but also its importance lies in the f act that how celebrity endorsement add value to company, brand and product.(Clinton Amos, Gary Holmes, David Strutton, Exploring the relationship between celebrity endorser effect and advertising effectiveness, International Journal of advertising , 27(2), 209-234, world advertising research center) Using celebrities for advertising helps the brand by acquiring better and more attention from the consumers, they add glamour to the product/brand and make it more credible, desirable and trustworthy. (Spielman, 1981 cited in Renton , 2006).According to Friedman and Friedman (1979) a celebrity is an individual who is known by the public for his achievements in area other than that of the product class he is endorsing. Famous people achieve a high degree of attention from the public and media. As a result of their celebrity status they create a positive image of the product they endorse. Murdoch argues that Belch and Belch has written   Marketers recognize that people are more likely to be influenced by   a message coming from someone with whom they feel a sense of similarity, and that advertisers recognise the value of using spokes person who are admired: TV and movie stars, athletes, musicians, and other popular figure (Murdoch, Creativity in advertising).There are a variety of reasons why a firm might go for celebrity endorsement some reasons may be the experiences that the celebrity faced in his life may be similar to the message to be conveyed in the advertisement and if you are a fan of the celebrity you might trust them..(Kulkarni and Gaulkar,   2007). Hence, Choosing a celebrity should be done with at most care and importance since it is more than a marketing strategy as it is a decision that has an impact on the prospect of the brand. Choice of celebrity should be on the basis of factors like appeal, popularity, etc.(Naveen Blazey and Shashi Kanth Gan ti, Goa institute of management Goa, Impact of celebrity endorsement on overall brand) Celebrities endorsement are sometimes very expensive for the firm,   based upon the reputation and the status of the celebrity, their remuneration could run into millions of dollars depending on   the contract, overall it is an huge investment made by the brands for advertising(Agrawal Kamakura,1995).In today dynamic market conditions, there is huge risk associated along with the celebrity endorsement, what if celebrity advertising does not affect the consumer purchasing decision, furthermore endorsement does not give economic returns after a high cost of celebrity advertising involved and does not affect the profitability of the brand, and in addition there are situation where the celebrity himself is in a controversy, and its effects on the firm. LOreal Paris: LOreal was established in 1909, previously known as LAureale (Latin meaning: Golden crown). It began producing hair dye products in Paris and due to its success it quickly started branching out in other countries along with diversifying the product range whilst including soaps, shampoos and hair preparations. In 1974, LOreal undertook many dermatological and pharmaceutical activities, For instance a joint auxiliary undertaking between LOreal and Nestle which concentrates on medication of diseases and infections. In December 2003, an research and development centre was established. In 2004 acquisition of Mininurse and Yue-Sai, two Chinese brands had taken place, furthermore LOreal group had been ranked by Interbrand, as the 49th global brand for leading international branding consultancy. In 2005 LOreal had set up its first research centre in Shanghai, which mainly dealt with the issue on the texture of Chinese skin hair and other varied needs of the Chinese. Today LOreal has over 50, 000 employees, a research team of 3,000 employees, 30,000 active patents and 130 branches all around the world (Datamonitor, LOreal Paris). LOreal Group has divided its products under a) Luxury goods which includes brands like Giorgio Armani, Ralph Lauren, Cashrel, Lancà ´me exacta b) Consumer goods- Brands that come under this group are LOreal Paris, Maybelline New York etc. c) Professional products and d) Active cosmetics. LOreal Paris characterizes professionalism, and due to research and development technology it has always maintained its high quality. This brand has targeted those consumers which are willing to pay higher prices for good quality products. The most important strategy that LOreal Paris has adopted to diversify its operations is by undertaking tactics such as expanding its distribution and advertisements, especially in countries like India, where the current brand ambassador is the Hindi film actress Sonam Kapoor. On the other hand, in other international countries during the mid May, 2009 LOreal Paris has increased it celebrity endorsements by endorsing three new celebrities Elizabeth Banks, Freida Pinto and Evangeline Lily. These new Hollywood celebrities were announced as the ambassadors during the Cannes film festival, and now they will join the LOreal Paris hall of fame with the previous LOreal Paris ambassadors such as Penelope Cruz, Jennifer Aniston, Beyonce, and Scarlett Johansson (Datamonitor, Loreal paris). According to Cesar Zamudio, 2008 Currently LOreal Paris has 14 ambassadors of different ethnicities and professions (Zamudio, 2008) 1.2 Purpose of the study This research is undertaken to realise and comprehend the appealing concept of brand endorsement and also its influence on the LOreal Paris and the consumer purchasing decision. The purpose is also to reach a conclusion whether celebrity endorsement which is a huge investment does actually give a positive return to LOreal Paris 1.3 Aims and objectives An Aim is set up in order to achieve the goals and to solve the purpose of the study undertaken. The aim of this Study would be to examine the vivid concept of celebrity endorsement, and how does it affect the brand and the consumer purchasing behaviour, furthermore how brands handle the risk factor. Objectives: To identify, analyse and discuss relevant literature, about the use of celebrity endorsement and its effects on the consumer purchasing behaviour To indentify some theoretical framework able to model the influence that celebrity endorsement plays on the brand itself To Design a methodological approach that would enable the collection analysis of primary and secondary data. To show the findings of this research within the context of the state of the art literature. To critically reflect the influence of celebrity endorsement on consumer purchasing behaviour and also on the LOreal Paris. 1.4 Research Methodology Collection of primary data will be done through questionnaires, in order to reach the aims and goals of the research. Secondary data will be collected through reading various journals and books related to the concept of celebrity endorsement Furthermore, data will be collected through reading newspaper articles, magazines, advertisements, magazines and articles from the database The conclusion will be depicted from the findings gathered from the primary and secondary data. 1.5 STRUCTURE:   CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: Introduction of this study has stated the research aims and objective, and the purpose of this study. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW: The literature review explains the aims and objectives of the previous researches and defends their view point from the research. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY: The methodology explains how the research will be carried out. In this study from qualitative and quantitative research methods, quantitative research method will be made use of. CHAPTER 4: DATA ANAYSIS: The data collected through the research method, will be analysed through various computer programming techniques in order to arrive to a result. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION: The findings and suggestions to readers will be stated which is on the basis of the result of the study. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. INTRODUCTION This section of literature review will deal with the synopsis of pertinent theories, models, subject matter and also illustrate previous findings. To start with introduction of the topic will be done followed by a detailed explanation of celebrity endorsement and sponsorship furthermore explanation of consumer behaviour and the factors or attributes affecting the consumer attitudes and the intension to purchase and lastly how celebrity adds value to the endorsed products. In the process of celebrity endorsement there are some risks and failures also involved, so such factors will also be discussed in brief. The literature review will comprise of: The illustration of celebrity endorsement process Factors that influence the consumer purchase intentions Differentiating the varied marketing tools. 2.2 CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS: The Celebrity endorsement issue gained apt importance after the Second World War, previously in 1666 where the sellers use to aggressively exhibit there endorsers. From the beginning of the twentieth century, people used to find celebrities in newspaper and magazines. (Segrave.2005).The endorsement process is time consuming and is worth a million dollar and is constituted by three important participants: Firms, celebrities, and the middle men. Busler (2002) states that in 2001, celebrities received around $800 million as their endorsement fees. Fees are still rising in this industry for instance in the sports industry, during 1997, Michael Jordan used to earn $47 million in a year which made him the h8ighest paid athlete , following ten years Le Bron James signed a contract worth $90 million with Nike additionally, he also discontinued using middlemen and commenced his own firm.(Arango 2007). Therefore the role of all the three participants can be understood, as the firms carry out c elebrity endorsements so as to increase their profits, celebrities accept it on order to earn and increase their popularity, while the middlemen take some commission for coordinating the celebrity and the firm (Agrawal and Kamakura 1995). The continuous development in this industry led FTC regulating it, where the FTC worked out a set of guidelines, which has to be followed whilst undertaking celebrity endorsements (Atkin and Block 1983). Since 1980s the contract fees have sky- rocketed (Segrave 2005). In 1986, Sylvester Stallone and Paul Newman were paid approx $1 million a year( Segrave 2005).   In 2007 the athlete Tiger woods was highest paid which amounted to a total of $100 million (Arango 2007). A celebrity has a distinct personality and reputation. Along with appearing in an advertisement, they are very talented and have exceptional skills in performing an undertaking, which makes them famous amongst the public besides gaining more respect and adoration. According to Pringle H and Binet L, Celebrities are those, who are famous and familiar amongst the regular people and are used by brands to add value to their advertisements by considering their image and reputation (Pringle H, Binet L, 2005). There are many studies carried out on the concept of celebrity endorsements, to begin with there are researches relating to who can be the best spokesperson for an endorsement amongst celebrities, the CEO, consumers or should it be an expert of the particular brand, the results were sketchy as not much research has been carried out on this particular issue so a vague and a blend of results were found, according to Atkin and Block (1983) and Frieden (1984) the celebrities are right choice but are not always found to be effective, but Martin et. al (2008) states that consumers can be found most suitable, in addition Harper 2007 and Simpson 2007 ends saying that the celebrities possibly may not be the best suited endorser furthermore Kamins,1989 undertook a two sided study the results were that celebrity were found to be more congenial and authentic over non-celebrity spokesperson.(Kamins 1989)   Agrawal and Kamakura (1995) and Mathur et al. (1997) argued on the effect of celebrity endorsement contracts on the profitability of a firm, Agrawal and Kamakura analyzed 110 celebrity endorsements contracts using event study analysis and found out that on an average the firms experience a 44% increase in their market value this will have a positive stock   return leading to increased   profits and furthermore   are considered as a worthwhile investment (Agrawal Kamakura,1995).Whereas Mathur (1997), emphasized on the issue relating to comeback Michael Jordan to NBA in 1995, which brought McDonalds (endorsed by Michael Jordan at that time) an approximate gain of $192 million, this figure is nearly equal to the price of 64 million McDonalds meals (Mathur et al. 1997). Another research was on the basis of how celebritys persona influences the consumers attitudes and product evaluations, According Friedman and Friedman (1979) and Roa et. al (1999) states that if the product is socially or psychologically risky then the celebrity endorsements will increase the chance of believing in the advertisement. Kalhe and Homer(1985) says when the celebrities image is equivalent to the product endorsed then only the celebrities physical attractiveness augment to product evaluations(Kalhe and Homer. 1985). Amos, Holmes, Strutton (2008) dealt with a relationship between the effects of celebrity endorser and the effectiveness of advertising using the Kruskal-Wallis non parametric test, they found that any off putting information or events concerning the celebrity can have an adverse effect on the brand, these researchers also used the source credibility model for evaluating consumer perceptions of a celebrity endorser, which consists of three important constituents- celebrity trustworthiness, celebrity expertise and celebrity attractiveness, the findings were that if there is advertisement clutter the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement might condense, in addition l arger influence of celebrity endorsement is found amongst the collage students.(Amos, Holmes, Strutton 2008). Endorsement effectiveness: According to Friedman and Friedman (1979) celebrities are more effective than an expert or a consumer, as they help in easily remembering and recollecting the band name of the product as the ad. (Friedman and Friedman 1979) . They also contribute to effectiveness of an endorsement by bringing in more depth, accuracy and polish to the meanings to be delivered and also to the advertisements, furthermore when celebrities deliver they do it with extra care along with offering a series of lifestyle and personality. (McCracken, 1989). Choi et al.(2005) states that domestic celebrities result in more effectiveness as they are constantly in touch with the existing cultural values compared to the international ones who might possibly more expensive and difficult to find to suit the brand (Choi et al 2005). For effectual use of celebrities and for successful endorsements, following guidelines have been mentioned by Till (1998). If the celebrity is utilised constantly or consistently, to reinforce the relation between the brand and celebrity, the celebrity endorsement will be more effective. The ad should contain relevant and true facts about the product, additionally it should be straightforward and uncomplicated. Those celebrities are recommended who are not allied with any other brand and are precisely appropriate for the endorsed brand. This marketing tool will be more accurate for those products for which the user has incomplete information. According to Shimp (2003), Creditability and attractiveness are the determinants of effectiveness of endorsers, Creditability consists of celebritys believability and dependability, while attractiveness involves physical attractiveness, respect and similarity between the endorser and publics age, gender, ethinicity. For instance Omega (Swiss watch) endorsed by Anna kournikova as they found her attractive Let us discuss celebrity performance, celebrity trustworthiness,celebrity expertise and celebrity attractiveness: Celebrity performance: According to Amos, Holmes, Strutton. 2008, celebrity performance (acting success, athlete success, music success etc.) refers to any given point of time of the celebrities profession where they accomplish achievement.(Amos, Holmes, Strutton. 2008) There is an direct impact of the celebrities performance on their popularity which might fall or even rise in their in the entire profession (Agrawal and Kamakura 1995). If their performance fall short it is likely that a celebrity endorsers effectiveness will deteriorate (Agrawal and Kamakura 1995).   Celebrity Trustworthiness: Trustworthiness refers to the amount of confidence that the consumers put on the celebrity for the message delivered by them which is believed to be most convincing (Ohanian 1990). According to Griffin (1967) Favourable disposition, acceptance, psychological safety and perceived supportive climate are favourable consequences of trust (cited in Chao et.al.2005). It is always found that a message coming from someone whom you trust, you tend to believe in the message more and bring about an effectual attitudinal change; on the other hand non trusted spokesperson influence tends to be lower. (Mc Ginnes and Ward 1980). The trustworthiness factor is an important element that constitutes the effectiveness of a celebrity endorsement. Celebrity Expertise: According to Erdogen (1999) celebrity expertise is the extent to which the spokesperson is observed to be an informant of valid assertations (Erdogen, 1999).   Ohanian 1990, states that investigating source creditability in settings involving persuasive communication generally indicates that a receivers perception of the sources expertises positively influences source effectiveness furthermore, a respondents actions in response to the sources perceived level of expertise and the target persons level of agreement with those recommendations and lastly subjects exposed to a source perceived as highy expert exhibit more agreement with the sources recommendations than did those exposed to a source with low expertise ( Ohanian 1990). Celebrity Attractiveness: It is multi-dimensional in nature, along with just the physical attractiveness it consists of other factors such as personality and ability (Erdogen 1999). This factor constitutes an important part in the effectiveness of an endorserment. The physically more attractive celebrities are normally seen as more approving on different personality attributes then non attractive corresponding person (Kalhe and Homer 1985, Eagly et. al. 1991). Joseph (1982) found out from his study that attractive spokesperson has more optimistic influence on the product then the non attractive ones. Baker and Churchill in 1977 concluded that even though attractive spokesperson had resulted in advertisement effectiveness but attractiveness did not have an impact on the purchase intentions of the consumer (Baker and Churchill, 1977). Negative effects/ Potential risks:   Even though celebrity endorsement is said to bring in many advantages and profits not only to the firm but also to the celebrities, there are many risks and negative effects associated with celebrity endorsement. The persona of the celebrity itself endures the customers to purchase the product, what if the celebrity gets caught in any controversy, criminal activities or is undergoing a personal problem The requirements or the must for a successful execution of celebrity endorsements starts with knowing where the brand is positioned currently which also includes where it wants to be in the future and how is it going to get there, then followed by developing a creative idea. After considering that celebrity endorsement is best and effective method for marketing communication, next critical thing to be thought about is selecting the appropriate celebrity. Furthermore the fame of the celebrity hastens up the message and in gain substantial return on investment is expected. (Pringle H, Binet L, 2005). CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT PROCESS: MEANING MOVEMENT AND THE ENDORSEMENT PROCESS   McCrackens meaning transfer process, has been divided in to three different stages, In stage ONE, he states that celebrities as compared to models and actors plays an extremely important role as they deliver a   variety of influential personality and lifestyle meaning which are extracted from the character they play in the movies, sports, military and other careers , Lastly the endorser comes in associate with the objects , persons and contexts, then the meaning is brought into the advertisement by the celebrity. In stage TWO, after the celebrity is finalised, the source of promotion should be identified and the product to be promoted should be furnished with meanings, in addition to this all the seize only those meanings related to the product which are to be acquired from the celebrity i.e. through campaigns, representative properties related to the product are conveyed by means of celebrity. Lastly the link between the celebrity and product is highlighted.   In the THRID stage, the representations of the celebrity are transferred to the product and also the meanings from objects, people and events surrounding them. With the use of products, celebrities create a self image before the audience that make these meanings accessible to the consumers, then the consumers understand the meaning and purchase accordingly (Mc Cracken Grant, 1989) 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION The literature review chapter discusses the literature in celebrity endorsement and its impact on the brand as well as the consumers. The next chapter of research methodology, is where a suitable method of research would be selected before carrying out the research. In this chapter description regarding the accomplishment of the research will be stated, furthermore the method selected, the approach, sample, and data collection will be depicted. 3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH: This research is both a quantitative and qualitative research, according to Bryman and bell quantitative research is a distinctive research strategy and in broad terms it can be said that it is collection of numerical data and as exhibiting a view of relationship between theory and research as deductive and as having a objectivist conception of social reality.( Bryman and bell,2007).. In the research along with primary data, secondary data will also be given importance where all the journals, text books, press articles and the internet where all the topic related websites including the companys website will be considered.   Primary research will be conducted using questionnaires and also interview. Qualitative research tends to be more concerned with words rather than numbers and a feature of qualitative research is inductive view where there is a relationship between theory and research and the theory is extracted out of the latter (Bryman and Bell,2007) an inductive view approach will help in completion of the literature review. From the literature review a number of research questions were formed. To start the research, the secondary data on celebrity endorsement and also its influence of this concept on brand and consumer behaviour was reassessed. The collection of secondary data involved journals, magazines, text books, press articles and the internet. In accordance to secondary data this research was found creditable for further investigation. Inductive approach has been chosen along with primary research and secondary data will help in completion of this research. Primary data will be collected with the help of questionnaire to obtain accurate results and contemporary data. 3.4 DATA COLLECTION SECONDARY DATA Secondary research helps in collection of data and understanding what has already been undertaken under this field. Examining the present and the past researches or studies will help in appropriate understanding of the concept under research. Collection of secondary data is comprised mainly from journals, press articles from news paper and magazine articles, books and reliable websites. Secondary data offers pertinent theories, models and concept based through which further research can be undertaken. PRIMARY DATA There are many ways through which primary data can be collected, for instance interview method, questionnaire etc. In this study questionnaire method is chosen. The questionnaire consists of both open-ended as well as close end questions References: Nathan Klaus, and Ainsworth Anthony Bailey, Celebrity endorsement :an examination of gender and consumer attitudes, American Journal of Business, 2008 vol.23 no.2 Agrawal J, Kamakura WA, July1995. The economic worth of celebrity endorsers: an event study analysis, journal of marketing Vol.59, pp.56-62 Rajakaski JJ, Simonsson R.2006, The subject of celebrity endorsement :what it was and what it has become.ISSN:1402-1773-ISRN:LTU-CUPP-06/137-SE. Clinton Amos, Gary Holmes, David Strutton, Exploring the relationship between celebrity endorser effect and advertising effectiveness, International Journal fo advaertising , 27(2), 209-234, world advertising research center. Naveen Blazey and Shashi Kanth Ganti, Goa institute of management Goa, Impact of celebrity endorsement on overall brand) Mc Cracken Grant, who is celebrity endorser? Cultural foundation of endorsement process, journal of consumer research, December 1989, vol. 16. Pringle H, Binet L, How marketers can use celebrities to sell more effectively, journal of consumer behaviour, 2005, vol.4,3, 201-214, Published by John Wiley and Sons, ltd. Wang .W.S., How culture influences the brand association in the United Kingdom and Taiwan: a case study of LOreal Paris. Segrave, Kerry. 2005. Endorsement in advertising. A social history. Mc Farland and company, Inc., USA. Busler, Micheal. 2002. Product differentiation, celebrity endorsement and the consumers perception of quality. Dissertation Drexel university. Arango, Tim. 2007. Lebron, Inc- the building of a billion- dollar athlete. Fortune Atkin, Charles , Martin Block. 1983. Effectiveness of celebrity endorsers. Journal of Advertising Research 23(1) 57-61. Frieden, Jon B. 1984. Advertising spokesperson effects: An examination of endorser type and gender on two audiences. Journal of advertising research 24(October/November) 33-41. Zamudio Cesar. 2008. Matching with the stars: the case of celebrity endorsements. The university of Texas at Dallas. Martin, Brett A.S., Daniel Wentzel, Torsten Tomczak. 2008. Effects of suspectibilty to normative influence and the type of testimonial on the attitudes towards print advertising. Journal of Advertising research 37(1) 27-43. Mathur, Lynette Knowles, Ilk Mathur, Nanda Rangan. 1997. The wealth effects associated with a celebrity endorser: The Micheal Jordan Phenomenon. Journal of advertising research 37 67-73 Kahle, Lynn R., Pamela M. Homer. 1985. Physical attractiveness of the celebrity endorser; A social Adaptation perspective. Journal of consumer research 11(4) 954-961 Amos Clinton, Holmes Gary and Strutton David. 2008. Exploring the relationship between celebrity endorser effects and advertising effectiveness, International journal of Advertising, 27(2).209-234. Friedman, Harshey, Linda Friedman. 1979. Endorser effectiveness by product type. Journal of advertising research 19(October/ November) 63-71. Rao, Akshay R., Lu QU, Robert W. Ruekert. 1999. Singaling unobservable quality through a brand ally.   Journal of Marketing research 36(2) 258-268. Erdogan, B.Z. 1999.Celebrityendorsement: a literature review. Journal of marketing management, 15(3), pp.291-314. Ohanian , R. 1990. Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers perceived expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness. Journal of advertising, 19(3), pp. 29-52. Giffin, K. 1967. The contribution of studies of source credibility to a theory of interpersonal trust in the communication process. Psychological bulletin, 68(2). pp. 104- 119. Chao, P., Wuhrer, G. and Werani, T(2005) Celebrity and foreign brand name as moderators of the country-of-origin effects, International journal of advertising, 24(2)pp. 173-192. McGinnes, E and Ward, C.1980. Better liked than right: trustworthiness and expertise as a factors in credibility. Personality and Social Psychology bulleti

Essay --

In King Lear by William Shakespeare, it is a play mostly about tragedy like most of Shakespeare’s plays. Shakespeare uses a vast amount of animal imagery to describe the characteristics of the villains to refer back to. He also presents an ample amount of symbolism throughout the play. The play starts by King Lear trying to settle matter of his estate between his three daughters: Goneril the eldest daughter and his also favorite daughter, Regan his second daughter, and Cordelia the youngest daughter. Based on their adulation Lear would decide who would get the largest share based on who â€Å"loves† him the most. Both Goneril and Regan declare in lavish terms that they love him more than anything in the world, which pleases Lear. For Cordelia, there is nothing to compare her love to; she being honest declares that there are no words that would express her love, which makes King Lear furious. In his anger he disowns Cordelia, and divides the kingdom between Regan and Goneril bringing tragically consequences throughout the play. Goneril and Regan plan to take all of Lear's power out of h...

Bermuda Triangle Essay -- Science Exploratory

Bermuda Triangle The Bermuda triangle, or the devil’s triangle, is an imaginary area located off the southeastern Atlantic coast of the United States. It is the greatest modern mystery of our supposedly well understood world. It is noted for a very high incidence of unexplained losses of ships, small boats, and aircraft. The tips of the triangle are generally thought to be Bermuda, Miami, Fla., and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Many theories attempting to explain the many disappearances have been offered throughout the history of the area. The most practical seem to be environmental and those that involve human error. Some reports even go as far as to saying that there are UFO’s kidnapping ships and planes, and that the lost city of Atlantis is below the Bermuda triangle. Weird disappearances and sightings in the Bermuda triangle date back to 1492, when the first voyage to America took place. Christopher Columbus when sailing through the imaginary place called the Bermuda triangle wrote of weird sightings in the ship log. He recorded that he and his crew had observed a large ball of fire fall into the sea and that the ship's compass was behaving differently. On October 11, which is the day Columbus landed on Cuba, Columbus and another man saw a light over the water, which disappeared suddenly. Within hours land was sighted. These incidents have been thought to be the first known indications that the Bermuda Triangle is filled with bizarre happenings, Columbus himself was not apparently bothered by what he had seen. The ball of fire might have been a meteor, a fire on the shore, a torch in an Indian's boat or even a hallucination. Whatever it was, Chris Columbus provided the Bermuda Triangle with a five hundred-year story. (3) Many ships and planes have been lost in the triangle. Of unexplained stories, the most famous of them all is of flight 19. The mission called for the thirteen men to fly due east fifty-six miles to Hens and Chicken Shoals to conduct practice-bombing runs. When they had completed that objective, the flight plan called for them to fly an additional sixty-seven miles east, then turn north for seventy-three miles and finally straight back to base, a distance of 120 miles. This course would take them on a triangular path over the sea. About an hour and a half into the mission Lt. Taylor reported that his compass was not working. Planes t... ...pearances occurred. Each was a world away from the other. One was off Australia, the other off Puerto Rico in the Bermuda Triangle, yet both were very similar. Both pilots were sober, one was a US Marine. Both reported a strange object harassing or, at the very least, very interested in their aircraft. Both could not describe exactly what it was. But in both cases, when it came in closer, it apparently caused a disruption of radio communication and cut out electro-magnetic power, causing the engine to sputter. Neither aircraft left any trace. Both carried ELTs, automatic alarms that are jettisoned when the aircraft impacts. This triggers them to send their electronic SOS signals, guiding rescuers to the point of the incident. Yet in both these incidents they were hushed, for no signal was ever picked up. (2) The Great Bermuda Triangle is one of the biggest mysteries still alive today. It has created many stories, some true, some untrue; there have been many unexplained disappearances in this imaginary place. Peoples lives have been lost, and ships and planes seemed to enter and never come out. Whatever it is, it will always be a mystery, a mystery of the Great Bermuda Triangle. Bermuda Triangle Essay -- Science Exploratory Bermuda Triangle The Bermuda triangle, or the devil’s triangle, is an imaginary area located off the southeastern Atlantic coast of the United States. It is the greatest modern mystery of our supposedly well understood world. It is noted for a very high incidence of unexplained losses of ships, small boats, and aircraft. The tips of the triangle are generally thought to be Bermuda, Miami, Fla., and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Many theories attempting to explain the many disappearances have been offered throughout the history of the area. The most practical seem to be environmental and those that involve human error. Some reports even go as far as to saying that there are UFO’s kidnapping ships and planes, and that the lost city of Atlantis is below the Bermuda triangle. Weird disappearances and sightings in the Bermuda triangle date back to 1492, when the first voyage to America took place. Christopher Columbus when sailing through the imaginary place called the Bermuda triangle wrote of weird sightings in the ship log. He recorded that he and his crew had observed a large ball of fire fall into the sea and that the ship's compass was behaving differently. On October 11, which is the day Columbus landed on Cuba, Columbus and another man saw a light over the water, which disappeared suddenly. Within hours land was sighted. These incidents have been thought to be the first known indications that the Bermuda Triangle is filled with bizarre happenings, Columbus himself was not apparently bothered by what he had seen. The ball of fire might have been a meteor, a fire on the shore, a torch in an Indian's boat or even a hallucination. Whatever it was, Chris Columbus provided the Bermuda Triangle with a five hundred-year story. (3) Many ships and planes have been lost in the triangle. Of unexplained stories, the most famous of them all is of flight 19. The mission called for the thirteen men to fly due east fifty-six miles to Hens and Chicken Shoals to conduct practice-bombing runs. When they had completed that objective, the flight plan called for them to fly an additional sixty-seven miles east, then turn north for seventy-three miles and finally straight back to base, a distance of 120 miles. This course would take them on a triangular path over the sea. About an hour and a half into the mission Lt. Taylor reported that his compass was not working. Planes t... ...pearances occurred. Each was a world away from the other. One was off Australia, the other off Puerto Rico in the Bermuda Triangle, yet both were very similar. Both pilots were sober, one was a US Marine. Both reported a strange object harassing or, at the very least, very interested in their aircraft. Both could not describe exactly what it was. But in both cases, when it came in closer, it apparently caused a disruption of radio communication and cut out electro-magnetic power, causing the engine to sputter. Neither aircraft left any trace. Both carried ELTs, automatic alarms that are jettisoned when the aircraft impacts. This triggers them to send their electronic SOS signals, guiding rescuers to the point of the incident. Yet in both these incidents they were hushed, for no signal was ever picked up. (2) The Great Bermuda Triangle is one of the biggest mysteries still alive today. It has created many stories, some true, some untrue; there have been many unexplained disappearances in this imaginary place. Peoples lives have been lost, and ships and planes seemed to enter and never come out. Whatever it is, it will always be a mystery, a mystery of the Great Bermuda Triangle.

Feminism in Pop Culture

Many myths and misconceptions float around the term ‘Feminism’. It is a movement that is frequently projected as being violent, aggressive, and full of ‘bra burning’ extremists. The word alone often evokes reactions among people that are negative, uncomplimentary and stereotypical. The disturbing of the patriarchal paradigm was a phenomenon that became prominent only in the Twentieth Century. Historically speaking women have always numerically outnumbered men, but through the system of patriarchy they have been suppressed by political, economic and social machinery. The difference between Gender and Sex When trying to examine feminism we must keep in mind the subtle difference between ‘gender’ and ‘sex’. For example, if a man were to dress or behave like a woman, it would not change the fact that he is still biologically a man, and here is where the difference lies. When we use the term ‘gender’, we are referring to a social construct, a store knowledge that has developed over generations that helps us in our identification of a person as a man or a woman. A person’s sex on the other hand is purely biological. A primary argument of feminist theory is that arbitrary allocations such as this that are constructs of society are completely devoid of any genuine value. Thus the duty of feminism, in one sense, involves the subversion of existing patriarchal paradigms by questioning phallocentric, or penis-centred, sources of power. Patriarchy and the Woman The term ‘Patriarchy’ itself can be broadly defined as an ideological system of belief that privileges males over females. This is a complex system that employs androcentric values, rituals and practices in order to maintain status quo. Another means of control involves patriarchy passing itself off as the so-called ‘norm’ or the ‘right’ way in which a society must divide itself, and regards the Female as a departure from this ‘norm’ and treats her as ‘the other’, a notion that only reinforces the sharp cleavage between the two sexes. As a result of this treatment, the decisions of a society are based on whatever the man decides, whereas everything else is lumped together as ‘the other’, the Female. It is however ironic that patriarchy itself requires the co-operation of the Female in order to subjugate her, making her a willing participant in her own suppression. As the French feminist Simone de Beauvoir put it so aptly in her seminal book, ‘The Second Sex’, published in 1949, ‘One is not born, but rather becomes a woman. ’, a statement that raises our consciousness to the disparity between the male ‘norm’ and the female ‘other’. It was indeed French Feminism that first brought to light the fact that all western languages are irredeemably male-engendered, male constituted and male-dominated. Discourse itself is phallocentric as seen in its vocabulary, syntax, rules of logic and its tendency for classification and opposition as well as the need for objective knowledge. Definitions of Feminist Literary Criticism There are multiple definitions that can be applied to Feminist Literary criticism. It differs from other schools of critical theory in that it does not derive its literary principles from a single authoritative figure or from a body of sacred texts. This is quite unlike other approaches such as Psychoanalysis, Marxism or Deconstruction, which can all be attributed to their primary exponents, Freud, Marx and Derrida respectively. Feminist theory has evolved from several sources, with several feminist thinkers contributing to the canon. Moreover, critical theory used in readings of Woman’s literature borrows from other disciplines such as History, Anthropology, Linguistics, Psychoanalysis and Marxism. It was a form of criticism created by literary and academic women who participated in the women’s liberation movement in the late 1960s. Kate Millet’s book, ‘Sexual Politics’ (1870) was the first major treatise on feminist criticism, and also represented a strong political argument for women’s rights. The Dictionary of Concepts in Literary Criticism and Theory defines Feminist Criticism as ‘The understanding and analysis of and response to literary works, and/or language and/or the institution of literary study or theory from the point of view of women’s experience. ’ â€Å"Feminist Criticism†, says Elaine Showalter, in her book ‘New Feminist Criticism’, â€Å"has established gender as a fundamental category of literary analysis. † Her article, ‘Dancing through the Minefield’ has also made some observations on the politics and practice of feminist criticism. She also points out that the earlier groups of feminist critics were preoccupied with the gender bias in writing, whereas the later group of gynocritics studied women as writers. Another columnist, Annette Kolodny, defines feminist criticism as â€Å"An acute and impassioned attentiveness to the ways in which primarily male structures of power are encoded within our literary inheritance, and the consequences of that encoding for women†¦ not only for a better understanding of the past but also for an improved recording of the present and the future. This form of criticism, as a self-aware and concerted approach to literature came into being in the late 1960s, as a part of the international woman’s movement. One of the first areas it looked into and challenged was literature, where it was always assumed that the representative reader, writer and critic were all male. The historical background and watershed marks in Feminist Criticism Behind the movement in the 1960s, however, lay two centuries of struggle, represented only by a few texts such as Mary Wollstonecraft’s ‘The vindication of the Rights of Women’ (1792). A later book, this time by John Stuart Mill, ‘The Subjection of Women’ (1869) was also brought to the fore. It suggested that the Wife was a family’s source of sustenance, and therefore the empowerment of the generations could be achieved only by empowering The Woman. The next seminal work in Feminist Criticism was penned by Virginia Woolf in 1929. Called ‘A Room of One’s Own’, the book talked about the major directions in which feminist explorations of literature needed to develop. The book is rich with insights about the absence of women writers and readers, and the probable fate to which the hypothetical ‘Sister of Shakespeare’, blessed with equal or greater genius, would have been consigned to thanks to socio-cultural obstacles of the age. In it, Woolf’s contention is that ‘A woman must have money and a room (referring to space, privilege and opportunity) of her own if she is to write [fiction]. † Other significant books include Toril Moi’s ‘Sexual/Textual Politics’ (1985) and Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar’s ‘No Mans Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the 20th Century’. These texts introduced the principles of feminist literary theory to the world. Their purpose was to offer feminist readings of texts that looked at the images and the stereotypes of women in literature as well as the omissions and misconceptions about women in criticism and ‘women-as-sign’ in semiotic systems. This kind of criticism concerns itself with developing a specifically female framework for dealing with works written by women, in all aspects of their production, including analysis and interpretation in ll literary forms and expressions, including journalism and popular culture, like Patricia Mayers-Spack’s ‘The Female Imagination’, Ellen Moer’s ‘Literary Women’, Elaine Showalter’s ‘A Literature of their Own: British Women Novelists from Bronte to Lessing’, or Gilbert and Gubar’s ‘The Mad Woman in the Attic’, a reference to Bertha Mason, who is ‘usually in some sense the author ’s double, (the other) an image of her own anxiety and rage. ’ Through the women’ liberation movement, literary criticism drew a connection between the lived lives of thousands of women who studied and taught literature. An important area of research was the limited secondary roles of fictional heroines and other feminine stereotypes in canonical literature. The Role of Feminist Criticism Feminist criticism, developing in tandem with the women’s liberation movement brought in a dual perspective that brought about a reappraisal of texts, looked at the construction of gender through language and the gendering of text, and examined the representation of women in literature and the exclusion of women as fictional characters, authors and readers. As far as literature is concerned, the role of Feminist criticism was to look at canonical literary works and the manner in which they represent women as stereotypes, and to develop theories for sexual differences in reading, writing and literary interpretation. It brings to the fore and establishes ‘gender’ as a fundamental category of literary analysis, and takes into account the fact that the vast majority of what is conceded to be the ‘literary canon’ is by and large authored by men, based on masculine norms and values, and women’s writing therefore is either excluded or undervalued in canonical literature, criticism and theory. Feminist critics also look at the representation of female experiences in literature. They reason that because a major aspect of literature is the reporting of our biological sense experiences, it would be impossible for the male to authentically capture an entirely feminine experience such as menstruation or childbirth. Feminist criticism also bases itself on two other primary assumptions: That gender is constructed through language (by way of political incorrect words and phrases such as ‘chairman’, ‘male nurse’ or ‘actor and actress’), and that writing strategies are sex-related and therefore misogynistic. Feminist criticism also shows that women readers, critics and writers bring different perceptions and expectations to their literary experiences, and insist that women have important stories to tell of their own culture. This kind of criticism opened space that now extended beyond the study of only women writers and now included the reappraisal of all literature that makes up our heritage. Feminist critics look at literary representation of sexual differences, and how literature shapes masculine and feminine values, privileging one set over another. The aim of feminist criticism therefore becomes to re-examine male texts, emphasize writing by women by charting a new literary history that includes neglected texts, a female tradition created by a sub-community of women writers who found support from their literary foremothers and so become role models for younger female writers. They also look at the oral tradition and other extra-literary expressions. Another aim involves the creation of new reading and writing collectives, libraries, publishing houses, social centres, colleges and so on. Feminist criticism confronts the problem of the feminist reader by offering new methods and fresh critical evaluation of issues, such as the mother-daughter cultural and relational aspect. Another major concern of Gynocritics is to identify what is taken to be distinctly feminine subject matter in literature written by women, the idea of sisterhood and female bonding, domesticity, gestation, birth, motherhood, mother-daughter or woman-woman relationships, etc. They also undertake to show that there is a distinctive feminine mode of experience or subjectivity in thinking, feeling, valuing and perceiving the self and others. French Feminism Related to this is the specification of the traits of women’s language and its distinctive style of speech and writing. Women must write in a way in which they can avoid the pitfalls of phallocentric language mentioned earlier, in a style represented by the term ‘ecriture feminine’ or writing in the feminine, a concept that was a product of French feminism. Helene Cixous, its main exponent, credited with authoring its manifesto, ‘The Laugh of Medusa’ (1975), stated that ecriture feminine is to be found in metaphors of female sexuality and women’s libidinal differences. Another critic, Luce Irigary, talks about women’s writing and its evasion of the male monopoly by replacing the monolithic phallus by the diversity, fluidity and multiple possibilities represented by female sexuality. These critics believe that women must try to resurrect the ‘feminine-feminine’ which possibly lies in the unconscious of all women. Julia Kristeva speaks of a pre-natal, pre-linguistic, pre-oedipal and unsystematic signifying language between the mother and the infant centred on the mother that she labels as semiotic and abstract, as opposed to the symbolic or letter based language of the father. Semiotic writing disrupts phallocentric writing because it is free from oppressive order and rationality. Both men and women can write in this mode, which deconstructs masculine structures of knowledge and attacks patriarchy and its language. The overall aim of ecriture feminine is therefore to allow a woman to write of, from and about their bodies. French feminist theory has contributed significantly to feminist literary criticism by studying the relationship between women, psychology and language. Currently feminist criticism employs a wide range of approaches and addresses a variety of issues of feminist interest. This is called ‘Playful Pluralism’. The oft-asserted goal of feminist critics has been to enlarge and re-order, or in some cases entirely displace the (patriarchal) literary canon. Feminist studies have served to raise the stakes of many female authors who were erstwhile neglected or even overlooked.